The Use of Cow Manure for Fertilizer

Cow manure is nature's fertilizer.

Use fresh cow manure as fertilizer and you might get a stinky garden and grass popping up in your flower beds. But use composted cow manure and you could have a thriving back yard. Cow manure generally doesn't have as much available nitrogen as commercial chemical fertilizers, but it makes a fine slow-release fertilizer for use on a range of plants -- from rose bushes and flowers to bean plants and squashes.

While it is generally more sloppy and difficult to handle than horse manure when fresh, cow manure can be composted into a relatively nutrient-rich material. Many farms sell or give gardeners cow manure that has been composting for six months or more. It tends to contain fewer seeds and fibers than horse manure.

Composting

Cow manure should not be used fresh. First, it needs to rot -- turning into a more flexible compost in the process. Fresh cow manure can contain dangerous bacteria, such as E. coli, which are destroyed during the composting process. Aside from that, fresh manure often contains grass and weed seeds that can cause havoc with your prepared beds when spread. Finally, the ammonia in fresh manure can cause strange growth patterns and "burn" delicate plant roots.

Application

Spread around 40 pounds of cow manure per 100 square feet of land, suggests Cornell University Department of Agriculture. Once applied, the fertilizer manure should be worked into the top 6 to 9 inches of the soil to ensure the nutrients mix well with the soil. Well-rotted and composted cow manure can go onto the ground in spring. If you plant to apply fresh manure, do it in the fall -- never in the spring or growing season.

Considerations

Cow manure can be used more directly to fertilize individual plants. A scoop of cow manure inserted into the base of a potting hole for squash or pumpkins, for example, gives them a nutritional boost for growing. You can also use cow manure spread around the base of established plants, particularly in sandy or nutrient-poor soils. This won't have as immediate an impact as chemical fertilizer, but will provide nutrients over a longer period of time.

Technology for Liquid Bio-Fertilizers Commercialized

Anand Agricultural University (AAU), Anand has developed a liquid formulation of Bio-fertilizers that are safe and eco-friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers. The liquid Bio-fertilizers (LBF) are suspensions having useful microorganisms, which fix atmospheric nitrogen and solubilise insoluble phosphates and make it available for the plants. LBFs are sold to farmers under the brand name “Anubhav liquid Bio-fertilizers” by the University. Anubhav LBF is based on native cultures of bacteria viz., Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum lipoferum and Bacillus coagulans.
To extend its reach to the farmers, the AAU has licensed the technology of LBF for commercialization to three companies in Gujarat through its Business Planning and Development Unit (BPDU) under Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode. BPDU is a special project at AAU, Anand under the World Bank funded scheme of National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi.
AAU has supplied LBFs to the tune of 50,000 litres to the Government of Gujarat for distribution to farmers as a part of Krishi kit during  Krishi Mahotsav, a mass agricultural technology dissemination programme of the Department of Agriculture, Government of Gujarat. The response of Gujarat farmers on use of LBF in different crops such as Cotton, Banana, Potato, Rose, Turmeric, Papaya etc. reported better yield and quality.
Liquid Bio-fertilizers have a distinct advantage in terms of cost saving on chemical fertilizers in addition to yield advantage. Chemical fertilizers otherwise may have negative effects on soil as well as human health, change the soil chemistry and these soils no longer support plant growth in the long run. 
The earlier products of bio-fertilizers were carrier (solid) based where lignite is usually added as a carrier material. Lignite is hazardous to the production workers. Also, the shelf life of carrier based bio-fertilizers is only 6 months and is difficult to transport. LBFs on the other hand have a shelf life of minimum one year, with no health hazards to production workers and are easy to transport. Additionally, LBF can be used in drip irrigation and as a component of organic farming.
Dr. R. V. Vyas, Research Scientist (Microbiology) and Mrs. H. N. Shelat, Associate Research Scientist (Microbiology) have been awarded with a “Certificate of Appreciation” from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for development of LBF and its commercialization.
(Source: NAIP-Mass Media Project, DKMA with inputs from BPDU, AAU and DMAPR, Anand)

How to Make a Compost

COMPOSTING

Composting is a technique used to accelerate the natural decay process. The technique converts organic wastes to a mulch which is used to fertilize and condition soil. Leaf waste decomposes naturally in about two years. Composting can take as long as a year or as little as 14 days, depending upon the amount of human control.

COMPOSTABLE MATERIALS

Most yard wastes can be composted, including leaves, grass clippings, plant stalks, vines, weeds, twigs and branches. Compostable food wastes include fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, eggshells and nutshells. Other compostable materials are hair clippings, feathers, straw, livestock manure, bonemeal and bloodmeal.
Materials should NOT be composted if they promote disease, cause odors, attract pests, or create other nuisances. These include meat, fish, poultry, dairy products, foods containing animal fats, human/pet feces, weeds with developed seed heads, and plants infected with or highly susceptible to disease, such as roses and peonies.
Materials that should be composted only in limited amounts include wood ashes (a source of lime), sawdust (requires extra nitrogen), plants treated with herbicides or pesticides (the chemicals need time for thorough decomposition), and black and white newsprint (composts slowly, so it should comprise no more than 10% by weight of the total pile).

COMPOSTING REQUIREMENTS

1. SHREDDED ORGANIC WASTES. Shredding, chopping or even bruising organic materials hastens decay. One way to shred leaves is to mow the lawn before raking, collecting the shredded leaves in the mower bag. It takes at least 34 cubic feet of shredded material to form a compost pile.
2. GOOD LOCATION. The compost pile should be located in a warm area and protected from overexposure to wind and too much direct sunlight. While heat and air facilitate composting, overexposure dries the materials. The location should not offend neighbors.
3. NITROGEN. Nitrogen accelerates composting. Good sources include fresh grass clippings, manure, bloodmeal and nitrogenous fertilizer. Lime should be used sparingly if at all. It enhances decomposition, but too much causes nitrogen loss, and it usually isn`t necessary unless the pile contains large amounts of pine and spruce needles or fruit wastes.
4. AIR. The compost pile and its enclosure should be well ventilated. Some decay will occur without oxygen, but the process is slow and causes odors.
5. WATER. Materials in the compost pile should be kept as moist as a squeezed sponge. Too little or too much water retards decomposition. Overwatering causes odors and loss of nutrients.

BUILDING AN ENCLOSURE

Enclosing the compost pile saves space and prevents litter. The enclosure should be collapsible or provide an entry large enough to permit the pile to be turned. It should measure at least 4'X4'X4' (a pile under 3 cubic feet generally does not decompose properly), but no taller than 6' (too much weight causes compaction and loss of oxygen). The enclosure can be built of wood, pallets, hay bales, cinder blocks, stakes and chicken wire, or snow fencing. Prefabricated compost bins are also available.

BUILDING THE PILE

Aside from the basic requirements for decomposition and preventing odors and other nuisances, there is no set method for building a compost pile. One technique may be faster than another, but a variety of methods work well. Piles can be built in layers to ensure the proper proportion of carbon (e.g., leaves, woody materials) to nitrogen (grass, fertilizer), but the layers should be thoroughly intermixed after the pile is built.

MAINTENANCE

Turning and mixing the pile with a pitchfork or shovel, or shifting it into another bin, provides the oxygen necessary for decomposition and compensates for excess moisture. A pile that is not mixed may take 34 times longer to decompose. Recommendations for mixing the pile vary from every 3 days to every 6 weeks. More frequent turning results in faster composting. Odors indicate that the pile is too damp or lacks oxygen, and that more frequent turning is necessary.
Occasional watering may be necessary to keep the pile damp, especially in dry weather. Covering the pile with black plastic reduces the need for watering; it also prevents rainwater from leaching out the nutrients.
A pile that is decomposing properly should generate temperatures of 140°-160°F at its center. The heat kills most weed seeds, insect eggs and diseases. The pile should be turned when the center begins to cool. Turning the pile maintains the temperature and ensures that all material is exposed to the center heat. When the compost is finished, the pile will no longer heat up.
Small amounts of fresh materials may be added but should be buried inside the pile to avoid pests and speed composting. It is better to add fresh materials to a new pile.

FINISHED COMPOST

Finished compost is dark brown, crumbly, and has an earthy odor. Depending upon seasonal temperatures, a well-built, well-tended pile generally yields finished compost in 2 weeks to 4 months. An unattended pile made with unshredded material may take longer than a year to decompose.

SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONS FOR FAST COMPOSTING *

• shredded leaves (about 2/3 by volume)
• fresh grass clippings (about 1/3 by volume, or slightly more for faster decomposition)
• kitchen scraps (grind in blender)

Begin the pile with a 4" layer of leaves. Add a 2" layer of grass clippings. Repeat the layers until the pile is about 4' high, then add the kitchen scraps.
Chop vertically through the pile with the tines of a pitchfork to thoroughly bruise and mix the materials. Add just enough water to moisten the pile, then cover it with a black plastic garbage bag. Using the same chopping technique, turn the pile on the second day after the pile is built, again on the fourth day, then every three days until the compost is finished. Except in dry weather, no further watering should be necessary.
The compost should be finished in about two weeks.

ALTERNATE COMPOSTING METHODS

Compost can be made in a garbage can, barrel or drum** that has a secure lid. Drill holes in the sides and bottom of the container to allow for air circulation and water drainage, and place it upright on blocks. Fill 3/4 of the container with organic wastes, add a little nitrogenous fertilizer (about 1/4 cup for a 55gallon barrel), and moisten the materials. Every few days shake the container or turn it on its side and roll it to mix the compost. The lid should be removed after turning to allow air penetration. This method yields finished compost in about 24 months.
Another method is to use a 30 or 40gallon plastic garbage bag. Fill the bag with organic materials, nitrogen and lime (one cup per bag helps counteract acidity caused by anaerobic composting). Shake well to mix materials. Add about 1 quart of water and close the bag tightly. Bags can be stored outdoors in the summer and in a heated basement or garage during the winter. No turning or additional water is necessary. The compost should be finished in about 6 12 months.
* Instructions are based on composting techniques presented in Make Compost in 14 Days, Rodale Press, Inc., Emmaus, PA 18049 (1982).
** Do not use any container that once held toxic chemicals.

Conventional Vs Organic Farming

Organic and conventional agriculture belonged to two different paradigms. The fundamental difference between the two competing agricultural paradigms as follows

Conventional Farming	Organic Farming
Centralization	Decentralization
Dependence	Independence
Competition	Community
Domination of nature	Harmony with nature
Specialisation	Diversity
Exploitation	Restraint

In contrast, several agro-ecologically based researchers stress more the fluid transition between conventional, integrated and organic farming, as an outcome of different assessments of economic, ecological and social goals. Consequently, technique strategies such as integrated pest management of balanced nutrient supply might improve conventional agriculture to such as an extent that it may appear unnecessary to strictly ban pesticides and mineral fertilizers as required by organic standards.

However, there is scientific that organic agriculture differs from conventional agriculture not only gradually but fundamentally. Implementing organic methods consequently seems to provide a new quality in how the agro-ecosystem works. This functioning cannot be explained by summing up single ecological measures. Organic farming seems to improve soil fertility in a way and to an extent which cannot be achieved by conventional farming even if the later consistently respects some ecologically principles.

Organic agriculture is one of several to sustainable agriculture and many of the techniques used (e.g. inter-cropping, rotation of crops, double digging,, mulching, integration of crops and livestock) are practiced under various agricultural systems. What makes organic agriculture unique, as regulated under various laws and certification programmes, is that:

1) almost all synthetic inputs are prohibited and 2) Soil building crop rotations are mandated.

The basic rules of organic production are that natural inputs are approved and synthetic inputs are prohibited, but there are exceptions in both cases.

Certain natural inputs determined by the various certification programmes to be harmful to human health or the environment are prohibited (e.g. arsenic). As well, certain synthetic inputs determined to be essential and consistent with organic farming philosophy, are allowed (e.g. insect pheromones). Lists of specific approved synthetic inputs and prohibited natural inputs are maintained by all the certification programmes and such a list is under negotiation in codex. Many certification programmes require additional environmental protection measures in adoption to these two requirements. While many farmers in the developing world do not use synthetic inputs, this alone is not sufficient to classify their operations as organic.

Modern Farming

Today's chemical farms have little use for the skilled husbandry which was once the guiding principle of working the land. The emphasis today is solely on productivity - high input in exchange for high returns and productivity (mostly diminishing now however for farmers worldwide). Four important considerations - what happens to the land, the food it produces, the people who eat it and the communities which lose out - are overlooked.

Land exhaustion	The constant use of artificial fertilizer, together with a lack of crop rotation, reduces the soil's fertility year by year.
Fertilizers	High yield levels are produced by applying large quantities of artificial fertilizers, instead of by maintaining the natural fertility of the soil.
Nitrate run-off	About half of the nitrate in the artificial fertilizer used on crops is dissolved by rain. The dissolved nitrate runs off the fields to contaminate water courses.
Soil erosion	Where repeated deep ploughing is used to turn over the ground, heavy rains can carry away the topsoil and leave the ground useless for cultivation.
Soil compaction	Damage to the structure of soil by compression is a serious problem in areas that are intensively farmed. Conventional tillage may involve a tractor passing over the land six or seven times, and the wheelings can cover up to 90 per cent of a field. Even a single tractor pass can compress the surface enough to reduce the porosity of the soil by 70 per cent, increasing surface run-off and, therefore, water erosion. In the worst cases, the surface run-off may approach 100 percent - none of the water penetrates the surface
Agricultural fuel	As crop yields grow, so does the amount of fuel needed to produce them. European farmers now use an average of 12 tons of fuel to farm a square kilometre of land; American farmers use about 5 tons (1987 figures).
Biocide sprays	The only controls used against weeds and pests are chemical ones. Most crops receive many doses of different chemicals before they are harvested.
Cruelty to animals	On most "modern" farms, all animals are crowded together indoors. Complex systems of machinery are needed to feed them, while constant medication is needed to prevent disease. The cruelty involved in managing, breeding, growing and slaughtering farm animals today is unimaginably repulsive and horrifying.
Animal slurry	With so many animals packed together in indoor pens, their manure accumulates at great speed. It is often poured into lagoons which leak into local watercourses, contaminating them with disease-causing organisms and contributing to algae-blooms.
Imported animal feed	Many farms are not self-sufficient in animal feed; instead they rely on feed brought into the farm. This often comes from countries which can ill afford to part with it.
Stubble burning	In countries where stubble is burned, large amounts of potentially useful organic matter disappear into the sky in clouds of polluting smoke
Loss of cultivated biodiversity	Large and other chemical farms tend to be monocultures growing the same crop and crop variety
Threat to indigenous seeds and animal breeds and species	Native cultivars and animal breeds lose out to exotic species and hybrids. Many native animal breeds are today threatened with extinction. The same holds true for many indigenous plant varieties which have disappeared within the space of one generation.
Habitat destruction	Agribusiness farming demands that anything which stands in the way of crop production is uprooted and destroyed. The wild animals and plants which were once a common sight around farms are deprived of their natural habitat and die out.
Contaminated food	Food, both plant and animal products, leaves the farm contaminated with the chemicals that were used to produce it.
Destruction of traditional knowledge systems and traditions	Rural indigenous knowledge and traditions, both agricultural and non-agricultural, is invariably connected to agriculture and agricultural systems.
Control of agriculture inputs and food distribution channel	The supply and trading in agricultural inputs and produce is in the hands of a few large corporations. This threatens food security, reducing the leverage and importance of the first and the last part of the supply chain - the farmer and the consumer.
Threat to individual farmers	Chemical agriculture is a threat to their livelihoods and changes their lifestyles, unfortunately not for the better.

Source:
www.localfoodworks.org

Organic Methods of Pest and Disease Management

Vegetable pests: Type-1 (Leaf eating caterpillars and borers)

Shoot borer, Fruit borer, Stem borer, Hairy caterpillar (on drum stick) and army worm of vegetable crops.

Control measures
1. Andrographis paniculata (siriyanangai) decoction 3 to 5 % or Sida spinosa (Arivalmani Poondu) decoction 5 %

Andrographis paniculata (siriyanangai)

Sida spinosa (Arivalmani Poondu)

For preparation of these decoctions, one of the above mentioned plants is taken and cut into small pieces excluding roots. One kg of this is mixed with four litres of water and placed in a mud pot. This is boiled and reduced to one litre. On cooling, 500 ml of this extract is mixed with 100 ml of soap solution and 9.4 litres of water and sprayed on the top.

2. Neem Kernel extracts 500 to 2000 ml per tank (10 litres capacity)

Neem Seed	Neem Seed Kernel

3-5 kgs of neem kernel is required for an acre. Remove the outer seed coat and use only the kernel. If the seeds are fresh, 3 kgs of kernel is sufficient. If the seeds are old 5 kgs are required. Pound the kernel gently and tie it loosely with a cotton cloth. Soak this overnight in a vessel containing 10 litres of water. After this, it is filtered. On filtering, 6-7 litres of extract can be obtained. 500-1000 ml of this extract should be diluted with 9 ½ or 9 litres of water. Before spraying khadi soap solution @ 10 ml/litre should be added to help the extract stick well to the leaf surface. This concentration of the extract can be increased or decreased depending on the intensity of pest attack.

3. Garlic, Chilli, Ginger extract 500 to 1000 ml per tank (10 litres capacity)

This is a mixture of three plant extracts. 18 grammes of garlic is taken, the outer skin is removed and made into paste. A paste of 9 grammes of green chilli and 9 grammes of ginger is made. All the three pastes are dissolved in 1 litre of water. This mixture is stirred well and filtered before spraying.  500 ml of this extract is made with 100 ml of soap solution and 9.4 litres of water and sprayed on the top.

Vegetable pests: Type-2 (Sucking borers)

Aphids, Green plant hoppers, mealy bugs and white fly

Control measures

1. Andrographis paniculata (siriyanangai) decoction 3 to 5 % or Sida spinosa (Arivalmani Poondu) decoction 5 %
2. Neem Kernel extract 500 to 2000 ml per tank (10 litres capacity)
3. Garlic, Chilli, Ginger extract 500 to 1000 ml per tank (10 litres capacity)
(Preparation mentioned in vegetable pest type-1)

Vegetable pests: Type-3 (Beetles and bugs): Leaf beetle (pumpkin beetle), pod sucking bug, Epilachina beetles of vegetables

Control measures

1. Cow dung extract: Take 1 kg and mix it with 10 litres of water. Filter the extract with a gunny cloth. Add 5 litres of water to the filtrate and again filter it with the same cloth. The filtrate will be a very clear solution.  Spray the filtrate on the plants.
2. Andrographis paniculata (siriyanangai) decoction 3 to 5 % or Sida spinosa (Arivalmani Poondu) decoction 5 %
3. Neem Kernel extract 500 to 2000 ml per tank (10 litres capacity)
(Preparation mentioned in vegetable pest type-1)

Vegetable diseases: Tomato wilt, Fusarium wilt in Chilli, Cercospora leaf spot, Yellow mosaic viral disease, alternaria leaf spot and fruit rot of all vegetable crops

Control methods

1. General methods

a. 10 % cow’s urine is sprayed once in 10 days thrice.
b. Half litre cow’s urine along with ½ litre sour butter milk is mixed with 9 litres of water. This is sparyed once in 7 days twice.
C. Cow’s urine and water is mixed in the ratio 1:2. The seeds or roots of seedlings are soaked  in this for half an hour before sowing or transplanting .
d. 40 kgs of neem cake per acre is applied as basal manure for vegetable crops to prevent diseases.
e. If there is a disease attack in the nursery, then add 10 % cow’s urine extract along with the water that is used to irrigate the nursery.

2. Fumigation combined with other organic methods

Embelica ribes (Vaividanga)	Acorus calamus (Vasambu)

10 % cow’s urine extract should be sprayed for crops affected by diseases. On the same day or the next day, fumigation should be done in the evening. Embelica ribes (Vaividanga) is powdered well (200 grammes/acre). It is then put in a wide mouthed pot with burning charcoal and carried in the field in a direction opposite to the wind. On the 7th day after fumigation, 300 ml of Acorus calamus (Vasambu) extract along with one litre of cow’s urine is mixed with 8.7 litres of water (measurement for one tank) and sprayed on the crop. Vasambu powder in 2 litres of water and then filtering the same. This method prevents wilting in chilli.

Non chemical other pest control methods

1. Light trap

Light trap

Light traps can be used to monitor and trap the adults thereby reducing the population. Some common light traps that could be used are hurricane lamp, trap with electrical bulb etc., The adult moths have an inherient capacity to get attracted to the light. It should be set up in the field after 5.30 p.m. A large plate or vessel fitted with kerosene mixed water is kept near the light trap. The attracted moths falls in this water and die.

2. Yellow sticky trap

Yellow sticky trap

Castor oil smeared yellow colour empty tins or plates are kept in the field. White flies get trapped on these sticky traps. These are wiped out every day and castor oil is applied again.

3. Bird perches: Install ‘T’ shaped bird perches which are long dried twigs @15-20 per acre. These attract birds for resting and the resting birds devour the larvae in the field.

4. Hand picking method: This method of pest is useful if the crop is in a small area. Pour a small amount of kerosene in a polythene bag and pick up the larvae during evening hours and put it in the bag. The pests can be controlled this way without the use of any chemicals. This should be done when the pest numbers are low.  

Hand picking of larva: Wild grasses and weeds should be removed from the field bunds and field, since, these are the favourite egg laying spots of the pests.

5. Neem as pest repellent:Take neem leaves or Neem cake or Neem kernels and pound it well and place it in a pot. Add twice the volume of water and tie the mouth of the pot with a cloth. Leave it as such for three days. Then, place the pots on all the 4 corners of a field. In the evening, open the mouth of the pots. The foul smell emanating from the neem products prevents entry of pests into the field.

Source of information:

• Organic methods of pests and disease management, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai
• http://www.asianhealthsecrets.com/letha/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Andrographis-Paniculata.jpg
• http://content5.eol.org/content/2010/10/09/04/54277_large.jpg
• https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX4usyIt-KCMkG7FgGvGciDWhOpgwJgpOpIJupaK9IFRYi_ywON2UfALz8DQV_OOKacUctgDRMWaTbm9FQB6T4lDtqM2-hBZU83Lk9K0pkYbERi2ku7pcXFkqRKnR2i_Aq-WbzGmJZD2c/s1600/123.jpg
• http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/ffs/Asparagus_light_trap.JPG
• http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/ffs/yellow_sticky_trap.JPG
• http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4095/4908804026_1db493ed60.jpg
• http://www.sciencephoto.com/image/392608/530wm/C0096592-Cabbage_White_caterpillar-SPL.jpg
• http://jvkini.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/102_3207.jpg
• http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Acorus_calamus2.jpg

Different types of biofertilizers

Rhizobium

Rhizobium is a soil habitat bacterium, which can able to colonize the legume roots and fixes the atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically. The morphology and physiology of Rhizobium will vary from free-living condition to the bacteroid of nodules. They are the most efficient biofertilizer as per the quantity of nitrogen fixed concerned. They have seven genera and highly specific to form nodule in legumes, referred as cross inoculation group.  Rhizobium inoculant was first made in USA and commercialized by private enterprise in 1930s and the strange situation at that time has been chronicled by Fred (1932).

Initially, due to absence of efficient bradyrhizobial strains in soil, soybean inoculation at that time resulted in bumper crops but incessant inoculation during the last four decades by US farmers has resulted in the build up of a plethora of inefficient strains in soil whose replacement by efficient strains of bradyrhizobia has become an insurmountable problem.

Azotobacter

Of the several species of Azotobacter, A. chroococcum happens to be the dominant inhabitant in arable soils capable of fixing N2 (2-15 mg N2 fixed /g of carbon source) in culture media. The bacterium produces abundant slime which helps in soil aggregation. The numbers of A. chroococcum in Indian soils rarely exceeds 105/g soil due to lack of organic matter and the presence of antagonistic microorganisms in soil.

Azospirillum

Azospirillum lipoferum and A. brasilense (Spirillum lipoferum in earlier literature) are primary inhabitants of soil, the rhizosphere and intercellular spaces of root cortex of graminaceous plants. They perform the associative symbiotic relation with the graminaceous plants.  The bacteria of Genus Azospirillum are  N2 fixing organisms isolated from the root and above ground parts of a variety of crop plants. They are Gram negative, Vibrio or Spirillum having abundant accumulation of polybetahydroxybutyrate (70 %) in cytoplasm. 

Five species of Azospirillum have been described to date A. brasilense, A.lipoferum, A.amazonense, A.halopraeferens and A.irakense.  The organism proliferates under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions but it is preferentially micro-aerophilic in the presence or absence of combined nitrogen in the medium. Apart from nitrogen fixation, growth promoting substance production (IAA), disease resistance and drought tolerance are some of the additional benefits due to Azospirillum inoculation.

Cyanobacteria

Both free-living as well as symbiotic cyanobacteria (blue green algae) have been harnessed in rice cultivation in India. A composite culture of BGA having heterocystous Nostoc, Anabaena, Aulosira etc. is given as primary inoculum in trays, polythene lined pots and later mass multiplied in the field for application as soil based flakes to the rice growing field at the rate of 10 kg/ha. The final product is not free from extraneous contaminants and not very often monitored for checking the presence of desiredalgal flora.

Once so much publicized as a biofertilizer for the rice crop, it has not presently attracted the attention of rice growers all over India except pockets in the Southern States, notably Tamil Nadu. The benefits due to algalization could be to the extent of 20-30 kg N/ha under ideal conditions but the labour oriented methodology for the preparation of BGA biofertilizer is in itself a limitation. Quality control measures are not usually followed except perhaps for random checking for the presence of desired species qualitatively.

Azolla

Azolla is a free-floating water fern that floats in water and fixes atmospheric nitrogen in association with nitrogen fixing blue green alga Anabaena azollae. Azolla fronds consist of sporophyte with a floating rhizome and small overlapping bi-lobed leaves and roots. Rice growing areas in South East Asia and other third World countries have recently been evincing increased interest in the use of the symbiotic N2 fixing water fern Azolla either as an alternate nitrogen sources or as a supplement to commercial nitrogen fertilizers. Azolla is used as biofertilizer for wetland rice and it is known to contribute 40-60 kg N/ha per rice crop.

Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms(PSM)

Several soil bacteria and fungi, notably species of Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc. secrete organic acids and lower the pH in their vicinity to bring about dissolution of bound phosphates in soil. Increased yields of wheat and potato were demonstrated due to inoculation of peat based cultures of Bacillus polymyxa and Pseudomonas striata. Currently, phosphate solubilizers are manufactured by agricultural universities and some private enterprises and sold to farmers through governmental agencies. These appear to be no check on either the quality of the inoculants marketed in India or the establishment of the desired organisms in the rhizosphere.

AM fungi

The transfer of nutrients mainly phosphorus and also zinc and sulphur from the soil milleu to the cells of the root cortex is mediated by intracellular obligate fungal endosymbionts of the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora, Sclerocysts and Endogone which possess vesicles for storage of nutrients and arbuscles for funneling these nutrients into the root system. By far, the commonest genus appears to be Glomus, which has several species distributed in soil. Availability for pure cultures of AM (Arbuscular Mycorrhiza) fungi is an impediment in large scale production despite the fact that beneficial effects of AM fungal inoculation to plants have been repeatedly shown under experimental conditions in the laboratory especially in conjunction with other nitrogen fixers.
                                                
Silicate solubilizing bacteria (SSB)

Microorganisms are capable of degrading silicates and aluminum silicates. During the metabolism of microbes several organic acids are produced and these have a dual role in silicate weathering. They supply H+ ions to the medium and promote hydrolysis and the organic acids like citric, oxalic acid, Keto acids and hydroxy carbolic acids which from complexes with cations, promote their removal and retention in the medium in a dissolved state.

The studies conducted with a Bacillus sp. isolated from the soil of granite crusher yard showed that the bacterium is capable of dissolving several silicate minerals under in vitro condition. The examination of anthrpogenic materials like cement, agro inputs like super phosphate and rock phosphate exhibited silicate solubilizing bacteria to a varying degree. The bacterial isolates made from different locations had varying degree of silicate solubilizing potential. Soil inoculation studies with selected isolate with red soil, clay soil, sand and hilly soil showed that the organisms multiplied in all types of soil and released more of silica and the available silica increased in soil and water. Rice responded well to application of organic sliceous residue like rice straw, rice husk and black ash @ 5 t/ha. Combining SSB with these residues further resulted in increased plant growth and grain yield. This enhancement is due to increased dissolution of silica and nutrients from the soil.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)

The group of bacteria that colonize roots or rhizosphere soil and beneficial to crops are referred to as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR).

The PGPR inoculants currently commercialized that seem to promote growth through at least one mechanism; suppression of plant disease (termed Bioprotectants), improved nutrient acquisition (termed Biofertilizers), or phytohormone production (termed Biostimulants). Species of Pseudomonas and Bacillus can produce as yet not well characterized phytohormones or growth regulators that cause crops to have greater amounts of fine roots which have the effect of increasing the absorptive surface of plant roots for uptake of water and nutrients. These PGPR are referred to as Biostimulants and the phytohormones they produce include indole-acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellins and inhibitors of ethylene production.

Recent advances in molecular techniques also are encouraging in that tools are becoming available to determine the mechanism by which crop performance is improved using PGPR and track survival and activity of PGPR organisms in soil and roots. The science of PGPR is at the stage where genetically modified PGPR can be produced. PGPR with antibiotic, phytohormone and siderophore production can be made.

Despite of promising results, biofertilizers has not got widespread application in agriculture mainly because of the variable response of plant species or genotypes to inoculation depending on the bacterial strain used. Differential rhizosphere effect of crops in harbouring a target strain or even the modulation of the bacterial nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilizing capacity by specific root exudates may account for the observed differences. On the other hand, good competitive ability and high saprophytic competence are the major factors determining the success of a bacterial strain as an inoculant.

Studies to know the synergistic activities and persistence of specific microbial populations in complex environments, such as the rhizosphere, should be addressed in order to obtain efficient inoculants. In this regards, research efforts are made at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai to obtain appropriate formulations of microbial inoculants incorporating nitrogen fixing, phosphate- and silicate- solubilizing bacteria and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria which will help in promoting the use of such beneficial bacteria in sustainable agriculture.

Liquid Biofertilizers

Biofertilizers are such as Rhizobium, Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria  provide nitrogen  and phosphorous nutrients to crop plants through nitrogen fixation and phosphorous solubilization processes. These Biofertilizers could be effectively utilized for rice, pulses, millets, cotton, sugarcane, vegetable and other horticulture crops. Biofertilizers  is one of the prime input in organic farming not only enhances the crop growth and yield but also improves the soil health and sustain soil fertility. At  present, Biofertilizers  are supplied to the farmers as carrier based  inoculants. As an alternative, liquid formulation technology has been developed in the Department of Agricultural  Microbiology, TNAU, Coimbatore which has more advantages than the carrier inoculants.

Benefits
The advantages of Liquid Bio-fertilizer over conventional carrier based Bio-fertilizers are listed below:

• Longer shelf life -12-24 months.
• No contamination.
• No loss of properties due to storage upto 45º c.
• Greater potentials to fight with native population.
• High populations can be maintained more than 109 cells/ml upto 12 months to 24 months.
• Easy identification by typical fermented smell.
• Cost saving on carrier material, pulverization, neutralization, sterilization, packing and transport.
• Quality control protocols are easy and quick.
• Better survival on seeds and soil.
• No need of running Bio-fertilizer production units through out the year.
• Very much easy to use by the farmer.
• Dosages is 10 time less than carrier based powder Bio-fertilizers.
• High commercial revenues.
• High export potential.
• Very high enzymatic activity since contamination is nil.

Characteritistics of different liquid Bio-fertilizers

Rhizobium

This belongs to bacterial group and the classical example is symbiotic nitrogen fixation. The bacteria infect the legume root and form root nodules within which they reduce molecular nitrogen to ammonia which is reality utilized by the plant to produce valuable proteins, vitamins and other nitrogen containing compounds. The site of  symbiosis is within the root nodules. It has been estimated that 40-250 kg N / ha / year is fixed by different legume crops by the microbial activities of Rhizobium. The percentage of nodules occupied, nodules dry weight, plant dry weight and the grain yield per plant the multistrain inoculant was highly promising Table-2 shows the N fixation rates.

Quantity of biological N fixed by Liqiud Rhizobium in different crops

Host Group	Rhizobium Species	Crops	N fix kg/ha
Pea group	Rhizobium leguminosarum	Green pea, Lentil	62- 132
Soybean group	R.japonicum	Soybean	57-  105
Lupini Group	R. lupine orinthopus	Lupinus	70- 90
Alfafa grp.Group	R.mellilotiMedicago Trigonella	Melilotus	100- 150
Beans group	R. phaseoli	Phaseoli	80- 110
Clover group	R. trifoli	Trifolium	130
Cowpea group	R. species	Moong, Redgram, Cowpea, Groundnut	57- 105
Cicer group	R. species	Bengal gram	75- 117

Physical features of liquid Rhizobium

• Dull white in colour
• No bad smell
• No foam formation, pH 6.8-7.5

Azospirllium

It belongs to bacteria and is known to fix the considerable quantity of nitrogen in the range of 20- 40 kg N/ha in the rhizosphere in non- non-leguminous plants such as cereals, millets, Oilseeds, cotton etc. The efficiency of Azospirillium as  a  Bio-Fertilizer has increased because of its ability of inducing abundant roots in several pants like rice, millets and oilseeds even in upland conditions. Considerable quantity of nitrogen fertilizer up to 25-30 % can be saved by the use of Azospirillum inoculant. The genus Azospirillum has three species viz., A. lipoferum, A. brasilense and A. amazonense. These species have been commercially exploited for the use as nitrogen supplying Bio-Fertilizers.

One of the characteristics of Azospirillum is its ability to reduce nitrate and denitrify. Both A. lipoferum,and A. brasilense may comprise of strains which can actively or weakly denitrify or reduce nitrate to nitrite and therefore, for inoculation preparation, it is necessary to select strains which do not possess these characteristics. Azospirllium lipoferum present in the roots of some of tropical forage grasses uch as Digitaria, Panicum, Brachiaria, Maize, Sorghum, Wheat and Rye.

Physical  features of liquid Azospirillum

• The colour of the liquid may be blue or dull white.
• Bad odours confirms improper liquid formulation and may be concluded as mere broth.
• Production of yellow gummy colour materials comfirms the quality product.
• Acidic pH always confirms that there is no Azospirillum bacteria in the liquid.

N2 fixing capacity of Azospirillum in the roots of several plants and the amount of N2 fixed by them.

Plant	Mg N2  fixed /g of substrate
Oryza sativa (Paddy)	28
Sorghum bicolour (Sorghum)	20
Zea mays (Maize)	20
Panicum sp.	24
Cynodon dactylon	36
Setaria sp	12
Amaranthus spinosa	16

Production of growth hormones

Azospirillum cultures synthesize considerable amount of biologically active substances like vitamins, nicotinic acid, indole acetic acids giberllins. All these hormones/chemicals helps the plants in better germination, early emergence, better root development.

Role of Liquid Azospirillum under field conditions

• Stimulates growth and imparts green colour which is a characteristic of a healthy plant.
• Aids utilization of potash, phosphorous and other nutrients.
• Encourage plumpness and succulence of fruits and increase protein percentage.

Sign of non functioning of Azospirillum in the field

• No growth promotion activity
• Yellowish green colour of leaves, which indicates no fixation of Nitrogen

Azotobacter

It is the important and well known free living nitrogen fixing aerobic bacterium. It is used as a Bio-Fertilizer for all non leguminous plants especially rice, cotton, vegetables etc. Azotobacter cells are not present on the rhizosplane but are abundant in the rhizosphere region. The lack of organic matter in the soil is a limiting factor for the proliferation of Azotobaceter in the soil.

Field experiments were conducted in 1992, 1993 and 1994 during the pre-kharif wet seasons to find out the influence on rice grain yield by the combined use of N- fixing organisms and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer which recorded increase in was yield.

Physical features of liquid Azotobacter

The pigmentation that is produced by Azotobacter in aged culture is melanin which is due to oxidation of tyrosine by tyrosinase an enzyme which has copper. The colour can be noted in liquid forms. Some of the pigmentation are described below-

• A. chroococcum: Produces brown-black pigmentation in liquid inoculum.
• A. beijerinchii: Produces yellow- light brown pigementation in liquid inoculum
• A. vinelandii: Produces green fluorescent pigmentation in liquid inoculum.
• A. paspali: Produces green fluorescent pigmentation in liquid inoculum.
• A. macrocytogenes: Produces, pink pigmentation in liquid inoculum.
• A. insignis: Produces less, gum less, grayish-blue pigmentation in liquid inoculum.
• A. agilies: Produces green-fluorescent pigmentation in liquid inoculum.

Role of liquid Azotobacter in tissue culture

The study was conducted by Dr. Senthil et al (2004) on sugarcane variety CO 86032 in Tissue culture Laboratories of Rajashree Sugars and Chemicals Ltd, Varadaraj nagar, Theni, Tamilnadu. The liquid bioinoculants were provided by Dr. Krishnan Chandra, Regional Director, RCOF, Bangalore to evaluate their growth promoting effects on sugarcane micropropagation. He recorded Biometric observations like Plant height, leaf length, width, root length, no of roots. Chemical parameters –Protein, Carbohydrates, N, P,K total biomass and concluded as follows:

• The performance of Azotobacter liquid inoculant was c
• omparatively better than all the treatments in 10 % MS medium followed Azospirillum.
• The performance of Azotobacter liquid inoculant was comparatively better than all the treatments followed by Azosopirillum for the growth of the polybag sugarcane seedlings.

Role of liquid Azotobacter as a Bio-control agent

Azotobacter have been found to produce some antifungal substance which inhibits the growth of some soil fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium, Curvularia, Alternaria, Helminthosporium, Fusarium etc.

Acetobaceter

This is a sacharophillic bacteria and associate with sugarcane, sweet potato and sweet sorghum plants and fixes 30 kgs/ N/ ha year. Mainly this bacterium is commercialized for sugarcane crop. It is known  to increase yield by 10-20 t/ acre and sugar content by about  10-15 percent.

Effect of liquid Acetobacter diazotrophicus on sugarcane

In South India use of Azospirillum and Phospho-bacterium on the cash crop sugarcane is a regular practice for the past few years with a saving of nearly 20 % of chemical nitrogen and phosphate applications. Now, it has been reported that a bacteria Acetobacter diazotrophicus  which is present in the sugarcane stem, leaves, soils have a capacity to fix up to 300 kgs of nitrogen. This bacteria first reported in brazil where the farmers cultivate sugarcane in very poor sub-soil fertilized with Phosphate, Potassium and micro elements alone, could produce yield for three consecutive harvests, without any nitrogen fertilizer. They have recorded yield 182- 244 tones per ha. This leads to the assumption that active nitrogen fixing bacteria has associated within the plant.

Do’s and Don’t for Entrepreneurs, Dealers and farmers

Do	Don’t
Keep Bio-fertilizers bottles away from direct heat and sunlight. Store it in cool and dry place.	Don’t store Bio-fertilizers bottles under heat and sunlight
Sell only Bio-fertilizers bottles which contain batch number, the name of the crop on which it has to be used, the date of manufacture and expiry period.	Don’t sell Bio-fertilizers bottles after their expiry period is over.
If the expiry period is over, then discard it as it is not effective.	Don’t prick holes into the bottles or puncture them to pour the content
Keep Bio-fertilizers bottles away from fertilizer or pesticide containers and they should not be mixed directly.	Do not mix the Bio-fertilizers with fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers.

Liquid  Bio-fertlizer application methodology
There are three ways of using Liquid Bio-fertilizers

1. Seed treatment
2. Root dipping
3. Soil application

Seed Treatment

Seed Treatment is a most common method adopted for all types of inoculants. The seed treatment is effective and economic. For small quantity of seeds (up to 5 kgs quantity) the coating can done in a plastic bag. For this purpose, a plastic bag having size (21” x 10”) or big size can be used. The bag should be filled with 2 kg or more of seeds. The bag should be closed in such a way to trap the airs as much as possible. The bag should be squeezed for 2 minutes or more until all the seed are uniformly wetted. Then bag is opened, inflated again and shaked gently. Stop shaking after each seeds gets a uniform layer of culture coating. The bag is opened and the seed is dried under the shade for 20-30 minutes. For large amount of seeds coating can be done in a bucket and inoculant can be mixed directly with hand. Seed Treatment with Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, along with PSM can be done.

The seed treatment can be done with any of two or more bacteria. There is no side (antagonistic) effect. The important things that has to be kept in mind are that the seeds must be coated first with Rhizobium, Azotobacter or Azospirillum. When each seed get a layer of above bacteria then PSM inoculant has to be coated as outer layer. This method will provide maximum number of each bacteria required for better results. Treatments of seed with any two bacteria will not provide maximum number of bacteria on individual seed.

Root dipping

For application of Azospirillum/ /PSM on paddy transplating/ vegetable crops this method is used. The required quantity of Azospirillum/ /PSM has to be mixed with 5-10 litres of water at one corner of the field and the roots of seedlings has to be dipped for a minimum of half-an-hour before transplantation.

Soil application

Use 200ml of PSM per acre. Mix PSM with 400 to 600 kgs of Cow dung FYM along with ½ bag of rock phosphate if available. The mixture of PSM, cow dung  and rock phosphate have to be kept under any tree or under shade for over night and maintain 50% moisture. Use the mixture as soil application in rows or during leveling of soil.

Dosage of liquid Bio-fertilizers in different crops

Recommended Liquid Bio-fertilizers and its application method, quantity to be used for different crops are as follows:

Crop	Recommended Bio-fertilizer	Application method	Quantity to be used
Field crops Pulses Chickpea, pea, Groundnut, soybean, beans, Lentil, lucern, Berseem, Green gram, Black gram, Cowpea and pigeon pea	Rhizobium	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Cereals Wheat, oat, barley	Azotobacter/Azospirillum	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Rice	Azospirillum	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Oil seeds Mustard, seasum, Linseeds, Sunflower, castor	Azotobacter	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Millets Pearl millets, Finger millets, kodo millet	Azotobacter	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Maize and Sorghum	Azospirillum	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Forage crops and Grasses Bermuda grass, Sudan grass, Napier Grass , ParaGrass, StarGrass etc.	Azotobacter	Seed treatment	200ml/acre
Other Misc. Plantation Crops Tobacco	Azotobacter	Seedling treatment	500ml/acre
Tea, Coffee	Azotobacter	Soil treatment	400ml/acre
Rubber, Coconuts	Azotobacter	Soil treatment	2-3 ml/plant
Agro-ForestRY/Fruit Plants All fruit/agro-forestry (herb,shrubs, annuals and perennial) plants for fuel wood fodder, fruits,gum,spice,leaves,flowers,nuts and seeds puppose	Azotobacter	Soil treatment	2-3 ml/plant at nursery
Leguminous plants/ trees	Rhizobium	Soil treatment	1-2 ml/plant

Note:
Doses recommended when count of inoculum is 1 x 108 cells/ml then doses will be ten times more besides above said Nitrogen fixers, Phosphate solubilizers and potash mobilizers at the rate of 200 ml/ acre could be applied for all crops.

Equipments required for Biofertilizer production
In biofertilizer production industry, equipments are the major infrastructure, which involves 70 percent of capital investment. Any compromise on the usage  of the following mentioned equipments may finally decline in the quality of biofertilizer.After studying the principle behind the usage of all instruments, some of the instruments can be replaced with a culture room fitted with a U.V.Lamp. Autoclaves, Hot Air Oven, Incubators and sealing machines are indigenously made with proper technical specifications. The correct use of equipments will give uninterrupted introduction with quality inoculum.
Essential equipments
Autoclave
           

It is an apparatus in which materials are sterilized by air free saturated steam (under pressure) at a temperature above 100OC. If the steam pressure inside the autoclave is increased to 15 psi,  the temperature will rise to 121°C. this is sufficient to destroy all vegetative cells. Normally all growth medium are sterilized in the autoclave.

Laminar air flow chamber           

Laminar air flow chamber provides a uniform flow of filtered air. This continuous flow of air will prevent settling of particles in the work area.Air borne contamination is avoided in this chamber. Culture transfers and inoculation can be done here.

BOD incubators 
           

Incubators providing controlled conditions (light, temperature, humidity, etc.) required for the growth and development of microorganisms. Multiplication of starter culture can be done in this instrument.

Rotary shaker

It is used for agitating culture flasks by circular motion under variable speed control. Shaking provides aeration for growth of cultures. Shakers holding upto 20-50 flasks are generally used. The capacity of the shaker may be increased if it is a double- decker type.

Hot air oven

Hot air oven is meant for sterilizing all glassware materials. Dry heat is used in this apparatus to sterilize the materials. Normally 180OC is used for two hours for sterilizing glasswares.

pH meter

An instrument for measuring pH of the solution using a 0-14 scale in which seven represents neutral points, less than seven is acidity (excess of H‘  over OH-) and more than seven is alkality  (excess of OH- over H‘  ) useful in adjusting the pH of the growth medium.

Refrigerator

This equipment is used preserving all mother cultures used for biofertilizer production. The mother culture is periodically sub-cultured and stored in the refrigerator for long- term usage.

Fermentor

           

A fermentor is the equipment, which provides the proper environment for the growth of a desired organism. It is generally a large vessel in which, the organism may be kept at the required temperature, pH , dissolved oxygen concentration and substrate concentration. Different models of fermentors are available depending upon the necessity. A simple version model contains steam generator, sterilization process devices and agitator. A sophisticated fermentor contains pH regulator, oxygen level regulator, anti-foam device, temperature  controller, etc.   

Nitrogen, Phosphate & Potash for Plants

Keep fertilizer out of water sources, drains and sewers.

The proper balance of certain elements in soil can make or break a garden. Nitrogen, phosphate and potash, naturally occurring elements, are required for healthy, thriving plant life. Soil often lacks in one or more of these components, making the addition of fertilizer necessary. Some natural treatments, like manure, can be used to improve soil quality, though commercially made fertilizers are also available. Remember, plants can get too much of a good thing, so test soil to keep the amount of these elements in your garden at the proper levels.

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Potash

Potash, a form of potassium oxide, is vital to plants throughout their life cycle. As it's water soluble and aided in the breakdown process by soil bacteria, potash is easily absorbed by plants and helps them flower and bear fruit. Bonfire ashes, in which no plastics, coal, paint or other chemicals were burned, are a valuable source of potash when sprinkled over a garden. Potash also helps plants better use other nutrients and prevent nitrogen depletion.

Phosphate

Phosphate is a macronutrient and a form of the element phosphorus. Fertilizers containing phosphate help stimulate plant growth, aid the development of strong roots and aid in flowering, notes the University of Minnesota. Common fertilizers contain rock phosphate treated with acid to make it water soluble and easily used by plants. To boost a garden's phosphate levels naturally, use bone meal, dried blood, old banana peels or animal manure to fertilize.

Nitrogen

Plant life requires nitrogen to create chlorophyll and nitrogen, among other things. Without enough nitrogen, plants turn yellow and fail to grow, but the presence of this element makes for a lush garden, full of plants with strong stems and leaves. Animal manure, particularly that which comes from rabbits, is high in nitrogen. However, treatments containing wood, like compost rich in sawdust, make nitrogen absorption difficult, so consider the drawbacks of any substances used to fertilize.

Combination Fertilizers

Most commercially available fertilizers contain a mixture of nitrogen, phosphate and potash, the amounts of which are printed on the label using three numbers. For instance, a label reading "5-5-5" contains 5 percent of each element, mixed with a filler like limestone or sand. To choose a fertilizer with the proper concentrations for your garden, have the soil tested to determine what is needed and how much of it is necessary to grow healthy, beautiful plants.

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References

• UK Gardening: Garden Fertilisers
• University of Minnesota: The Nature of Phosphorus in Soils
• Wilkinson Garden Supplies: Phosphate
• Gardening Australia: Fact Sheet: Managing Nitrogen
• Washington State University: Soil Management in Yards and Gardens

Resources

• North Carolina Department of Agriculture: A Homeowner's Guide to Fertilizer
• Herself's Houston Garden: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Are the Primary Nutrients Your Plant Requires

The Effects of Synthetic Fertilizers

Synthetic fertilizers increase crop yield but also have numerous harmful effects.

Agriculture has relied on the use of natural fertilizers -- substances that increase the nutrient levels of soil -- for most of human history. Synthetic fertilizers made an entrance at the end of the 19th century and paved the way for modern agricultural production. Their use increased crop yields and brought on an agricultural revolution, the likes of which the world had not seen before. Synthetic fertilizers continue to have far-reaching effects, both positive and negative, and are likely to remain a part of human life for some time to come.

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Organic vs. Synthetic Fertilizers

Fertilizers are of two types: organic, or natural, and inorganic, or synthetic. Organic fertilizers are naturally occurring substances and include biofertilizers, green manure, organic manure and compost. They slowly leach essential nutrients into the soil and improve its overall vitality with time. Synthetic fertilizers are man-made combinations of chemicals and inorganic substances. They typically combine nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and other elements in different ratios. Synthetic fertilizers, unlike their organic counterparts, immediately supply essential nutrients to soil.

Positive Effects of Synthetic Fertilizers

Synthetic fertilizers supply consistent amounts of precise nutrients to the soil. They act on soil immediately -- unlike organic fertilizers that need to break down before absorption. This immediate efficacy is especially beneficial to dying or severely malnourished plants. Synthetic fertilizers are easy to use and their effects are almost immediate. Synthetic fertilizers are convenient to use and easily available in gardening stores.

Negative Effects of Synthetic Fertilizers

Synthetic fertilizers have long-term negative effects. Synthetic fertilizers kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that convert dead human and plant remains into nutrient-rich organic matter. Nitrogen- and phosphate-based synthetic fertilizers leach into groundwater and increase its toxicity, causing water pollution. Fertilizers that leach into streams, rivers, lakes and other bodies of water disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Synthetic fertilizers increase the nitrate levels of soil. Plants produced from such soil, upon consumption, convert to toxic nitrites in the intestines. These harmful nitrites react with the hemoglobin in the blood stream to cause methaeglobinaemia, which damages the vascular and respiratory systems, causing suffocation and even death in extreme cases (when blood methaemoglobin level is 80 percent or more). Synthetic fertilizers damage the natural makeup of soil in the long term. Plants that grow in overly fertilized soil are deficient in iron, zinc, carotene, vitamin C, copper and protein.

Minimizing Negative Effects

Mix synthetic fertilizer well into the soil. This will prevent runoff when it rains. Dilute your water-soluble synthetic fertilizer well before use. Improperly diluted fertilizer can burn your plants. Wash all vegetables and fruit yield from synthetically treated soil thoroughly before eating. Keep unused fertilizer away from water, pets and children. Consider switching to organic fertilizers, which are safer and cause no pollution.

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References

• Soil Organic Matter and Its Role in Crop Production; Franklin Elmer Allison
• Organic Land Care: Effects of Some Synthetic Fertilzers
• Water Pollution; Dr. B.K. Sharma

Resources

• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Fertilizer Use